Morphological Markers
cytoplasmic condensation
blebbing of
the plasma membrane
pyknotic nuclei
condensed chromatin
nuclear matrix re-organization.
nuclear chromatin
cell fragmentation into corpses
DNA fragmentation
exposed
phosphatidylserine on the outer leaflet of their plasma membrane
disruption of
the mitochondrial trans-membrane potential.
PMID: 8903420,
PMID: 15220540
AIF (apoptosis inducing factor)
used to detect early phases of apoptosis. PMID: 11053912, PMID: 9210526, PMID: 10728376
membrane staining with annexin V PMID: 9348289
Apolipoprotein
C-1
an novel
apoptotic marker that has been implicated in apoptotic human
vascular smooth muscle cell death via recruiting a neutral
sphingomyelinase (N-SMase)-ceramide pathway.
PMID: 16822514
a marker of
early apoptosis.
PMID: 14555502
a reliable indicator of apoptotic rate, with a
favorable comparison against terminal transferase-mediated DNA
nick-end labeling (TUNEL) assay.
PMID: 16931214
apoptotic
molecules.
PMID: 16813711
as useful and
specific as morphology for identifying apoptotic colonic
epithelial cells.
PMID: 15684335
Clusterin
a protein probably related to the process of
programmed cell death (apoptosis), was specifically very highly
expressed in target fibers.
PMID: 8297243
clusterin is considered as a specific marker
of dying cells.
PMID: 1430214
histone
release from chromatin are recognized as hallmarks of apoptosis.
PMID: 16531610
an early
indicator of apoptosis in epithelial cells.
PMID: 10782407
M30 (cytokeratin 18 neo-epitope) specifically labels late apoptotic trophoblast cells, and is a highly reproducible marker for apoptotic trophoblast. PMID: 11162351
p41
may serve as a marker of apoptotic cell
death.
PMID: 11095960
p53
P53, a marker
of apoptosis control.
PMID: 12085205
an early marker of chemotherapy-induced apoptosis. PMID: 8358726
PARP is enzymatically cleaved during programmed cell death (apoptosis), so detection of the cleavage products is characteristic for apoptosis. PMID: 16541210
SBDP120
120 kDa spectrin breakdown product
marker for
neuronal apoptosis.
PMID: 10825575
Single-Stranded DNA
MAb to
single-stranded DNA is a specific and sensitive cellular marker
of apoptosis, which differentiates between apoptosis and
necrosis and detects cells in the early stages of apoptosis.
PMID: 8806443
a 16.5 kDa
anti-apoptosis protein, inhibits the two early apoptotic enzymes
caspase-3 and caspase-7, thus preventing programmed cell death.
PMID: 11851094
survivin gene
is a novel apoptosis inhibitor.
PMID: 10561264
tissue
polypeptide antigen (TPA), may be considered the first marker of
apoptosis measured with a fully standardized quantitative method
in tumor cytosol.
PMID: 10832591
tissue
transglutaminase (tTG),
a marker of apoptosis during treatment and progression of
prostate cancer.
PMID: 10569613
tTG cleavage
as a valuable biochemical marker of caspase 3 activation during
the late execution phase of apoptosis.
PMID: 10556977
propidium
iodide (PI) binding to DNA allows detection of late
apoptotic/necrotic cells.
PMID: 11053912
Cell-free
plasma DNA: a marker for apoptosis during hemodialysis.
PMID: 16510434
Cytosolic
labile zinc: a marker for apoptosis in the developing rat brain.
PMID: 16420450
serum
cytochrome c is a sensitive clinical marker of apoptosis.
PMID: 15800951,
PMID: 12859698
Resting membrane potential as a marker of apoptosis: studies on Xenopus oocytes microinjected with cytochrome c. PMID: 11313704
circulating DNA may be a marker of cell
death, although its levels likely reflect a complex process
involving the interactions of macrophages with dead and dying
cells.
PMID: 15261342
plasma DNA is a cell death/tumour marker that
should be taken into account in studying the cancerous process
in human diseases, and could be helpful for follow-up and
management of elderly patients.
PMID: 7767913,
PMID: 8244049
Nucleosomes in serum as a marker for cell
death.
PMID: 11522104